Tuesday, August 6, 2019
The Renaissance Period Essay Example for Free
The Renaissance Period Essay The period in time referred to as the Renaissance started in the late 1300s and existed through the 1500s. The term translates into rebirth, and describes the process of intellectual and cultural change that began in northern Italy and eventually made its way to countries lying further north. In this era, Christianity began to evolve and branch into different directions, weakening the power of the church and allowing the disciplines of philosophy and science the freedom to take new routes encouraging scientific observation as opposed to blind faith, or reasoning (Gaardner 197, 202).            These changes in Christianity, philosophy and science brought about the new ideas of renaissance humanism. When the author says, We speak of renaissance humanism, since now after the Dark Ages in which every aspect of life was seen through divine light, everything once again revolved around man., he is explaining how man has come to see himself in a new light. In the Dark Ages man viewed himself simply as a pitiful servant to God, unworthy of any form of greatness. During the Renaissance, man saw himself not as a servant to God, but as an integral and more importantly, unique part of God and his greatness. Man began to believe that God existed everywhere and in everything, including himself, and so man could now celebrate himself and his individual achievements, which became the basis of the new world view (Gaardner 197, 201).            The new world view consists mainly of two things: the way man viewed himself, and the way he viewed his surroundings. As previously stated, man viewed himself in a much higher light than in the previous era. He now also had a new view of nature. Previously, the world had only been looked at as a place of preparation for the hereafter, but now it was looked at as a place to investigate and explore. There was an exciting environment of freedom and exploration. Many people of the time were very aware that they were living in a special, exciting era of intellectual and cultural growth, and they wanted to play an active role in it. This led to huge advancements in all areas from the arts to the sciences, and to the ideal of the Renaissance man, the desire to be knowledgeable in all of these areas (Gaardner 200, 201).            There were three main technological developments that were necessary for the Renaissance era to come to life. The compass, which made navigation simpler and encouraged the exploration of new lands, accrual of new observations, and information; firearms, which gave the Europeans military power and made exploring the new lands safer, allowing them to easily overcome any native populations; and most importantly, the printing press, which allowed people greater access to all forms of information, promoting curiosity in the common person and encouraging the desire to know more, to explore, and to ask questions about their surroundings. The printing press also took away the authority of the church as the only source of written knowledge. All three of these developments came together to contribute to the spreading of the new world view over long distances, encouraging the growth of the Renaissance movement and its ideals (Gaardner 198).            The transition from a subsistence economy to a monetary economy also played a large role in the formation of the Renaissance era. The difference between the Renaissance economy and the economy in the Middle Ages was the formation of a large middle class. The formation of the middle class occurred during this time because at the end of the Middle Ages, large cities were fully developed, encouraging the growth of trade and commerce. A monetary economy with banking systems soon followed and the middle class was born, with people having the luxury to be able to buy the things that they needed or wanted. This type of system encouraged people to work harder and smarter, as opposed to feudalism, where working harder would not reap any personal benefits. As the author puts it, This state of affairs rewarded peoples diligence, imagination, and ingenuity. New demands were made on the individual. This statement reflects the trademarks of individualism, experimentation and exploration that are present in the ideals of the Renaissance era (Gaardner 199).            Another way that the printing press contributed to the Renaissance was by allowing the Bible to be translated and printed in different languages. Prior to this, in the Catholic church, only priests and monks read the Bible, because it was only available in Latin. Once it was translated and printed, an individual could read it for himself, and interpret what it said in his own way. This led to an emphasis on an individuals personal relationship with God, and less of an emphasis on a persons relationship with his spiritual leaders. Eventually, it would lead to the Reformation (Gaardner 212).            The author speaks of a new religiosity that developed during the Renaissance. He is referring to the fact that thoughts on God in his relation to the individual changed dramatically. Prior to the Renaissance, there was a belief that the priest was the only person who truly had a special relationship with God, so therefore it was entirely necessary for an individual to seek forgiveness from God through the priest. God was the only gateway to paradise, and the priest was the only gateway to God. Once the Renaissance was in progress, with its newly found importance of the individual and the ability of the common person to read and interpret the Bible for himself, people began to feel that it was possible to have their own personal relationship with God with or without the involvement of the church, which is a view that is still extremely popular today. This view was put forth by Martin Luther, one of the important contributors to the Reformation of the church during the Renaissance (Gaardner 212-213).            Many of the new views on religion during the Renaissance were prompted by advancements in science. A new scientific method was developed during the Renaissance, and formed the basis for all of the technological and scientific advances that have been achieved from that point onward. The new method incorporated using your own senses and experiences to observe phenomena during experimentation. Two of the most important scientists of this time, in my opinion, were Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton (Gaardner 202).            Galiliei formulated the Law of Inertia, which states that a body in motion or at rest remains in that state until an external force causes it to change. Galilei set up a simple experiment to observe what would happen when two forces acted on an object simultaneously. Through his observations, he found that despite what was commonly thought, an object that had been propelled into the air would follow a parabola-shaped trajectory. This would occur due to the forward force of the propulsion of the object, combined with the force of gravity pulling the object down towards the earth (Gaardner 205-208).            Newton used his own observations to formulate the Law of Universal Gravitation, which states that every object attracts every other object with a force that increases in proportion to the size of the objects, and decreases in proportion to the distance between the objects. He used his newly formulated law in conjunction with Galileis previously stated law and observations to explain exactly why the planets traveled in elliptical orbits around the sun. It is the result of two forces acting on an object simultaneously: linear movement from the force applied to the planets during the birth of the solar system, combined with the movement towards the sun due to its gravitational pull. The combination of these two forces, as Galilei previously stated, is what creates the elliptical movement. Newton was able to show that the same laws applied to every heavenly body in the universe, thereby proving that there was not a special set of laws that applied to the heavens, and a separate set of laws for the earth. This caused the people of the time to begin to question exactly what their place was in the universe(Gaardner 209-211).            To this day, we are still making discoveries that lead people to question what their place is in the universe, and if their belief in God is logical or not. Scientists have made and are constantly on the verge of making some huge, definitely stunning advancements, and it inevitably causes people to further question what their place is in respect to the world, the universe and in God. For example, the issues of stem cell research, cloning, and the manipulation of genes are all very controversial at this time, because people are forced to see that man has the ability to create life in a lab, and that he can go on to guide life in almost any direction he may choose, he can play God, as many people say. My own opinion on science is that it is something that must move forward. There is no reason to fear science. When I analyze each of the topics mentioned above, I can not think of any logical reasons why we should not proceed experimenting with them. They are simply processes that occur naturally already, we are only directing them to proceed in a manner that will be as beneficial to us as possible. As far as what this means for religion, faith will always be what it has always been faith. True faith is unshakeable, as mentioned by Gaardner in respect to Isaac Newtons belief that his findings only supported proof of the existence of of the great and almighty God (212). Who is to say that all of these magnificent discoveries and the intricacies on which they are based are not guided by the hand of God?            As to the question of our own age that we are living in, I think that in many aspects it is very similar to the Renaissance era. There is definitely a strong belief in the importance of the individual, so much to the point that I think you could say there is a strong trend towards selfishness and indifference. I think this has been reflected especially in the area of the family unit, with the high rates of divorce and single parent homes. People no longer base their life decisions on what will be best for the family unit, but what will make me happy.            There is also a similarity in that many people no longer feel the need to involve the church in their relationship with God. While most people still have a strong faith in God, or some form of Creator, church attendance has reached record lows. Some people believe that science has become the new religion, but I think that mankind will always feel the need to believe that he will somehow be allowed to continue on, as death seems much too simple of an ending to the elaborate design of a human being and the world around him.            Despite our many similarities to the Renaissance, I think that our era can be defined as the Age of Technology. I believe this era began with the inventions of the computer and the internet. Like the printing press during the Renaissance, these two developments allow the rapid dissemination of information across vast distances. The discovery of these systems has revolutionized every area of science, allowing information to be rapidly computed and shared. I think that we are still in the very infantile stages of the Age of Technology, and we can only wonder what developments will arise by the time a new age begins. Works Cited Gaardner, Jostein. Sophies World (188-215).
Risk-based Access Control Model for the Internet of Things
Risk-based Access Control Model for the Internet of Things Developing an adaptive Risk-based access control model for the Internet of Things Hany F. Atlam a, c Gary B. Wills a, Robert J. Walters a, Joshua Daniel c a Electronic and Computer Science Dept., University of Southampton, UK b Security Futures Practice, BT Research Innovation, Ipswich, UK c Computer Science and Engineering Dept., Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University, Egypt Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) is creating a revolution in the number of connected devices. Cisco reported that there were 25 billion IoT devices in 2015 and modest estimation that this number will almost double by 2020. Society has become dependent on these billions of devices, devices that are connected and communicating with each other all the time with information constantly share between users, services, and internet providers. The emergent IoT devices as a technology are creating a huge security rift between users and usability, sacrificing usability for security created a number of major issues. First, IoT devices are classified under Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) that blows any organization security boundary and make them a target for espionage or tracking. Second, the size of the data generated from IoT makes big data problems pale in comparison not to mention IoT devices need a real-time response. Third, is incorporating secure access and control for IoT devices ranging from edge nodes devices to application level (business intelligence reporting tools) is a challenge because it has to account for several hardware and application levels. Establishing a secure access control model between different IoT devices and services is a major milestone for the IoT. This is important because data leakage and unauthorized access to data have a high impact on our IoT devices. However, traditional access control mode ls with the static and rigid infrastructure cannot provide the required security for the IoT infrastructure. Therefore, this paper proposes a risk-based access control model for IoT technology that takes into account real-time data information request for IoT devices and gives dynamic feedback. The proposed model uses IoT environment features to estimate the security risk associated with each access request using user context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs for security risk estimation algorithm that is responsible for access decision. Then the proposed model uses smart contracts to provide adaptive features in which the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal actions from authorized users. Keywords Security, Internet of Things, Risk, access control, Adaptive, Context. The Internet of Things (IoT) is growing in different ways. The adoption rate of the IoT is at least five times faster than the adoption of electricity and telephony [1]. Moreover, it is becoming the backbone of the future of the Internet that encompasses various applications and devices. The IoT devices are interconnected using different communication technologies such as wireless, wired and mobile networks [2]. The concept of the IoT was first mentioned by Kevin Ashton in 1999 [3]. He has said, The Internet of Things has the potential to change the world, just as the Internet did. Maybe even more so. Later, the IoT was formally presented by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in 2005 [4]. The ITU defines the IoT as: a global infrastructure for the Information Society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on, existing and evolving, interoperable information and communication technologies[5]. The IoT faces many challenges that stand as a barrier to the successful implementation of IoT applications. The security is considered the most difficult challenge that needs to be addressed. This challenge is more complicated due to the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of the IoT system [6], [7]. Authentication and access control models are the essential elements to address the security issue in the IoT. They can prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to system resources, prevent authorized users from accessing resources in an unauthorized manner and allow authorized users to access resources in an authorized manner [8], [9]. The main purpose of the access control is to reject unauthorized users and limit operations of authorized users using a certain device. In addition, it tries to prevent the activity that could cause a security breach [7]. A powerful access control model should satisfy security requirements of confidentiality, integrity, and availability [10]. Traditional access control approaches are static in nature as they depend on predefined policies that always give the same outcome regardless of the situation. They are context insensitive. Furthermore, they require a rigid authentication infrastructure [11], [12]. So they cannot provide for distributed and dynamic environment as the IoT systems [13]. Dynamic access control approaches are more appropriate to the IoT. This is because they are characterized by using not only the policies but also environment features that are estimated in real-time to determine access decisions. The dynamic features can include trust, risk, context, history and op erational need [14], [15]. This paper presents an adaptive risk-based access control model for the IoT. This model can dynamically estimate the security risk associated with each access request to make the access decision. It uses real-time user context attributes, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs to estimate the security risk value of each access request. In addition, the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal misuse. This paper will start by discussing concepts of access control in the IoT in section II; Section III presents access control challenges in the IoT; Section IV introduces different access control models; Section V discusses the concept of risk-based access control model; Section VI presents the proposed model; Section VII illustrates the process flow of the proposed model; Section VIII presents the related works, and Section IX is the conclusion The IoT devices send and receive a variety of information about owners behavior. Therefore, it is important to protect not only the communication process between IoT devices but also authentication and access control of IoT devices [16]. The access control process works with many layers of the IoT reference model that is shown in figure 1. The control process flows from top to down. Therefore, the access control works with different data whether at storage, at motion, or at IoT device itself. Therefore, the access control is a big issue in the IoT that need addressing. Fig. 1. The IoT reference model [16] The main function of access control is to grant access rights only to authorized users. Also, it prevents authorized users from accessing system resources in an unauthorized manner [7]. A powerful access control model should fulfill security demands of confidentiality, integrity, and availability [10]. In the IoT, the access control is required to ensure that only authorized users can update device software, access sensor data or command the actuators to perform an operation [17]. There are three ways to implement access control in the IoT systems; centralized, centralized and contextual, and distributed [18]. In the centralized approach, the access control logic is implemented at a central entity. This entity could be a server with direct communication to IoT devices that it manages or another entity in a different location. Therefore, IoT devices send their data to the central entity that is responsible for making access control decisions [18]. In the centralized and contextual approach, IoT devices are not completely passive entities; this is because they participate in the access control decisions. The access control logic is implemented at a central entity as in centralized approach, but the contextual features from IoT devices are sent to the central entity. These features are used to make access decisions [18]. In the distributed approach, all the access control logic is embedded into IoT devices. These devices are being provided with necessary resources to process and send information to other services and devices. Therefore, IoT devices have to have the ability to perform the authorization process without the need for a central entity [18]. Due to the distributed and dynamic nature of the IoT, there are many challenges that should be addressed when implementing an access control model. These requirements include; Interoperability with multiple users: Access control policies should be designed to support multiple organizations. For instance, each organization creates its own policies and respect other collaborating organizations policies [24]. Dynamic interaction: Access control policies should be predictable and specified in a dynamic and continuous way by considering context changing during the access control process [25]. Context awareness: The context is considered one of the core features since it enables intelligent interactions between users and IoT devices. Using the context will make access decisions dynamically determined based on surrounding environment features [17]. Usability: The access control model should be easily administrated, expressed and modified. It also should provide suitable easy to use interfaces for both consumers and devices needs [26]. Limited resources: The resources associated with IoT devices such as energy, memory, and processing power are limited due to devices lightweight. Therefore, the access control model designed for the loT should support efficient solutions [17]. Scalability: The IoT connects billions of devices. The access control model should be extensible in size, structure, and number of devices [17]. Delegation of authority: In many IoT scenarios, there are many devices that are operating on behalf of a user and other scenarios where a device may operate on a third partys behalf for a specific period of time. The access control model should implement delegation of authority to provide more usability and flexibility to the IoT system [24]. Auditability: Any and every access control needs to be auditable. Hence, collection and storage of evidence necessary for context awareness. This becomes a challenge when utilizing a distributed approach [17]. To ensure confidentiality and integrity of system resources, the access control is used to guarantee that only authorized users granted the appropriate access permissions. There are several access control models which can be divided into two classes; traditional and dynamic access control models [19]. Traditional access control approaches are based on policies that are static and rigid in nature. These policies are predefined and always give the same outcome regardless of the situation. Therefore, this static approach fails to adapt to varied and changing conditions during making access decisions [20]. There are three main traditional access control models; Discretionary Access Control (DAC), Mandatory Access Control (MAC) and Role-based Access Control (RBAC). DAC model was designed for multi-user databases and systems with a few previously known users. All the system resources are under full control from the user. DAC grants access depending on the user identity and authorization, which is defined for open policies. The owner of the resource can grant the access to any user [19]. While MAC model is concerned with confidentiality and integrity of information, so it mainly used in military and government applications. In MAC, the security policy is controlled by a security policy administrator and the user does not have the capability to override it [19]. RBAC model is consists of three elements: users (subjects requesting access), roles (collection of permission) and operations (actions on target resource). Access permissions are related to roles and the appropriate role is granted to the user. A single user can be associated with one or more roles, and a single role can include one or more user. RBAC provides a classification of users bas ed on their roles [21]. Dynamic access control models are characterized by using not only the access policies but also dynamic contextual features which are estimated in real-time at the time of the request [22]. These real-time features can include trust, risk, context, history and operational need [23], [14]. In this paper, we propose a risk-based access control model that uses the security risk as the main criterion for making the access permissions. The risk can be defined as the possibility of loss or injury. Generally, the risk is about some event that may occur in the future and cause losses. One such risk is the leakage of sensitive information by users. The access control is one of the approaches used to mitigate against the security risk [27]. Risk-based access control model permits or denies access requests dynamically based on the estimated risk of each access request [20]. This model performs a risk analysis on each user access request to make the access decision [7]. Mathematically, the most common formula to represent the risk in quantitative terms is: (1) Where likelihood represents the probability of an incident to happen while impact represents the estimation of the value of the damage regarding that incident [20]. Quantified risk-based access control models are divided into two types: non-adaptive and adaptive. The fundamental distinction between adaptive and non-adaptive approaches is that the adaptive model requires a system monitoring process and the risk estimation module adaptively adjusts user permissions based on the users activities during access sessions. While non-adaptive approach only calculates the risk during each session creation and does not have run-time monitoring and abnormality detection capability [11]. Dynamic access control approaches use real-time environment features to make the access decision. One of these features is the security risk associated with the access request, which will be used in our proposed model to make the access decision. The proposed model is shown in figure 2. The proposed model has four inputs: user/agent context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history. These inputs/risk factors are used to estimate the security risk value associated with each access request. The final risk value is then compared with risk policies to make the access decision. To make the model adaptive, the user behavior is monitored to detect any abnormal actions from authorized users. This model can provide an appropriate security level while ensuring flexibility and scalability to the IoT system. Fig. 2. The proposed adaptive risk-based access control model As shown in figure 2, the user/agent context represents the environmental features that are embedded with the user/agent at the time of making the access request. These contexts are used to determine the security risk value associated with the user requesting the access to the system. Location and time are the most common user contexts [28]. Resource sensitivity represents how valuable the resource/data is to the owner or to the service provider. Data is assigned a level of sensitivity based on who should have access to it and how much damage would be done if it were disclosed. A risk metric is assigned to each resource in the IoT system depending on how valuable the resource data is to the owner. For instance, the higher the data sensitivity, the higher the risk metric associated with the resource. Action severity represents the consequences of a certain action on a particular resource in terms of security requirements of confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Different opera tions have different impacts and so have different risk values. For instance, the risk of a view operation is lower than the risk of a delete operation. The user risk history is used to estimate the risk value of each access request. This is because the risk history reflects previous users behavior patterns. Moreover, it is used to identify good and bad authorized users and predict the user future behavior. Risk estimation module is responsible for taking the input features to quantify the risk value that is associated with the access request. The ultimate goal is to develop an efficient risk estimation process. The access decision determines whether access is granted or denied according to the risk policies. Risk policies or access control policies are mainly used by the risk estimation module to make the access decisions. These policies are created by the resource owner to identify terms and conditions of granting or denying the access. The overall risk value is examined with the risk policies to determine the access decision. The proposed model is trying to improve the flexibility of access control by monitoring the user behavior during the access session. In current access control models, if the decision is to grant access to the user, then there is no way to prevent any abnormal and unusual data access from the authorized user. So a monitoring module is needed to adaptively adjust the risk value based on the user behavior during the access session. Applying smart contracts to accomplish this process is a big challenge especially it will be the first time to use the smart contracts in this context. Smart contracts are treated as a software code that runs on a blockchain [29]. It can force a functional implementation of particular demands and can confirm that certain conditions or terms were met or not [30]. Hence, the monitored user behavior information will be compared with the smart contract to ensure that the user acts according to the terms of the smart contract so as to prevent any potential securit y breach during the access sessions. The process flow of the proposed model is shown in figure 3. The flow starts when the access control manager receives an access request from a user. After that, the access control manager asks for the system contexts (user/agent, resource, and action) of the requested user in addition to the user risk history. The risk estimation module uses these contexts with the risk history to estimate the overall access risk value related to the requested user, then the estimated risk value is compared with risk policies to determine the access decision. At this point, we have two decisions: a) If the access is granted, then the monitoring module will track the user behavior. The smart contract will use the monitored data to determine if the user follows the contract terms or not. If yes, then it will keep monitoring the user behavior, while if not, then it will return to the risk estimation module to reduce user permissions or terminate the access session to stop any security breach. b) If the access is denied, then the system asks the user to provide additional proof of identification so as not to block an authorized user and reduce the false-positive rate. If the user provides the required identification, then the access is granted and the flow continues as in the first decision, while if not, the system denies the access. Fig. 3. The process flow of the adaptive risk-based access control model This section provides a brief summary of the models that are related to the proposed model. A number of studies have been conducted the security risk for dynamic access control models. The JASON report [31] proposed three main elements for a risk-based access control model: estimating the risk value associated with each access request, identifying acceptance levels of risk in a certain domain, and controlling information sharing based on the estimated risk and access control policies. Risk Adaptable Access Control (RAdAC) model has been proposed by McGraw [32]. It is based on estimating the security risk and operational needs to grant or deny the access. This model estimates the risk associated with each access request then compares it with the access control policy. After that, the system verifies the operational needs; if the associated operational needs and the policy are met then access is granted. However, the author did not provide details about how to quantitatively estimate risk and operational needs. Also, Kandala et al. [33] have provided an approach that identifies different risk components of the RAdAC model using attribute-based access control approach. A dynamic and flexible risk-based access control model has been proposed by Diep et al. [12]. This model uses the risk assessment to estimate the risk value depending on outcomes of actions in term of availability, confidentiality, and integrity. However, this model did not provide a standard about how to evaluate the risk value for each state of the environment and for each outcome of action, did not use user context, and lacked risk adaptive features. A framework proposed by Khambhammettu et al. [34] that based on estimating object sensitivity, subject trustworthiness, and the difference between object sensitivity and subject trustworthiness using a risk assessment. However, the model did not provide how to estimate the risk value for each situation of the environment. Besides, the model requires a system administrator to give a reasonable value for each input feature in the early state of the risk assessment process and lacked risk adaptive features. A fuzzy Multi-Level Security (MLS) access control model has been proposed to manage risk information flows based on estimating its operational needs, risk possibility and environment features [20]. It estimates the risk based on the difference between subject security level and object security level. Similarly, Ni, Bertino, Lobo [35] have proposed a risk-based access control model that based on fuzzy inferences. It showed that fuzzy inference is a good approach for estimating access security risks. However, both models ignored the past behavior of users in the risk estimation process, lacked risk adaptive features and time overhead of fuzzy inference system is high. A fuzzy-based risk access control model has been proposed by J. Li, Bai, Zaman [27] to estimate the risk of healthcare information access. A risk metric is associated with data sensitivity, action severity, and risk history as a fuzzy value to determine the appropriate control of healthcare information access in a cloud computing. However, this model did not provide how to quantitatively estimate the risk. Also, no clear risk boundaries are defined and lacked risk adaptive features. A dynamic risk-based decision method has been proposed by Shaikh et al. [14]. This method is based on using the past behavior to identify good and bad authorized users. It depends on granting reward and penalty points to users after the completion of transactions. However, the past user behavior (reward/penalty) values are not enough to decide the access decision. Besides, no risk prediction technique is used and lacked risk adaptive features. A risk analysis approach has been proposed by Rajbhandari Snekkenes [36] to provide access decisions dynamically. This approach is based on preferences or values of benefit which subjects can provide rather than subjective probability using the game theory. A simple privacy scenario between a user and an online bookstore is introduced to provide an initial perception of the concept. However, using only benefits of the subject to determine the access decision is not enough to develop a flexible and scalable access control model. Also, it lacked risk adaptive features. A task-based access control model has been proposed by Sharma et al. [37] to estimate the risk value using functions that based on the action a user wants to perform. The risk value is computed in terms of different actions and corresponding outcomes. The outcomes and the risk probability are determined along with the level of data sensitivity. The previous users behavior patterns are then used to estimate the overall risk value. The estimated risk value is compared with the risk threshold to determine the access decision. However, it lacked risk adaptive features. A contextual risk-based access control model has been proposed by Lee et al. [13]. The model gathers all useful information from the environment and evaluates them from the security perspective. Risk assessment with multifactor evaluation process (MFEP) technique is applied to estimate the associated risk value. The risk value is based on outcomes of actions in term of availability, confidentiality, and integrity. This model is evaluated to manage the access control in a hospital. However, this model ignored the past user behavior and risk adaptive features as well. A risk-based access control model has been proposed by Dos Santos et al. [7]. This model employed the notion of quantifying risk metrics and aggregating them. It is based on the idea of risk policies, which allow service providers and resource owners to define their own metrics, allowing greater flexibility to the access control system. However, this model requires a system administrator to ensure the minimum security is achieved. Table 1 provides a summary of the related risk-based access control models. It contains the risk estimation technique used to estimate the risk value in each model, risk factors used to estimate the risk value and the limitations of each model regarding our proposed model. In summary, one can say that the problem of the access control, especially in the IoT, needs more investigation. Current access control models concentrate only on providing access decisions without providing any way to prevent any abnormal and unusual data access from authorized users, whereas our approach is based on providing the access decision and monitoring the user behavior to detect any abnormal actions. The novelty of our approach is based on providing the adaptive features and requesting user context attributes to the risk-based access control in the IoT system. To the best of my knowledge, using smart contracts to monitor the user access behavior will be the first try. Table 1. Some of the risk-based access control models Previous work Risk Estimation method Risk factors Limitations [20] Fuzzy MLS Model Difference between subject security level and object security level The user past behavior has not been used to detect user future behavior and lacked adaptive features. [27] Fuzzy Model Data sensitivity, action severity, and user risk history No clear risk boundaries are defined and lacked adaptive features. [35] Fuzzy Inference Object security level and subject security level Time overhead of fuzzy inference is high and lacked adaptive features. [34] Risk Assessment Object sensitivity, subject trust and difference between them User risk history has not been used and lacked adaptive features. [14] Risk Assessment History of reward and penalty points Limited risk factors, no risk prediction technique is used and lacked adaptive features. [36] Game Theory Access benefits of the subject Limited risk factors and lacked adaptive features. [37] Mathematics Functions Data Sensitivity, action severity, and risk history No risk prediction technique has not been used, lacked adaptive features and user context. [13] Risk Assessment Outcomes of actions Limited risk factors, lacked adaptive features and user context. [12] Risk Assessment Outcomes of actions Limited risk factors, no risk prediction technique has been used, lacked adaptive features and user context. [7] Mathematics Functions Risk policies Limited risk factors and lacked adaptive features. The IoT has become a widely examined subject that takes the attention of many researchers, specialists, and experts. Due to the dynamic nature of the IoT, traditional access control approaches cannot provide required security levels as they are based on a static and complex authentication infrastructure. Therefore, the scope of this paper is to develop a dynamic and adaptive risk-based access control model for the IoT. This model can adapt to IoT changing conditions. The proposed model can be realized by estimating the security risk using IoT real-time features at the time of the access request to make the access decision. The model uses user context, resource sensitivity, action severity and risk history as inputs to estimate the overall risk value associated with each access request. The model provides adaptive features to monitor user behavior and prevents any misuses from authorized users using smart contracts. The above work is still in the first stage. In future work, choosing the most appropriate risk estimation technique for a specific IoT context is our highest priority to proceed to implement the model as well as creating different IoT access control case studies with data to evaluate the model. Acknowledgment We acknowledge Egyptian cultural affairs and mission sector and Menoufia University for their scholarship to Hany Atlam that allows the research to be undertaken. References [1]S. Li, L. Da Xu, and S. Zhao, The internet of things: a survey, Inf. Syst. Front., vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 243-259, 2015. [2]M. Elkhodr, S. Shahrestani, and H. Cheung, The Internet of Things: Vision challenges, IEEE 2013 Tencon Spring, TENCONSpring 2013 Conf. Proc., pp. 218-222, 2013. [3]K. Ashton, That Internet of Things Thing, RFID J., p. 4986, 2
Monday, August 5, 2019
Personal development and study methods
Personal development and study methods Personal development and study methods help me to enhance self-development and build up individual personality. Besides that, it helps me to know more about myself and developed potential in the future. It helps me to improve my weaknesses and enhance the virtue by setting goal for the future. On the other hand, study methods can help me to improve my reading mistakes and get a better result in exam to achieve my goal in the future. I also improve self confidence and self-esteem in social skill from this subject. Before that, I am irresolute and less confidence in handling a task and make a decision in each part of life. But now, I become self-confidence to make decision in completing a task. (Mind Tools, 1995) Besides that, I also improve my self esteem in life. Before that, I have a low self esteem, always think negative and believe in negative comments. (Perera, 2002) I gives them impression feel without confidence to do something and negative influence on the decision making. But now, I have high self esteem by thinking positively and feel confidence to make a decision. (Perera, 2002) Besides that, I also learnt on thinking skill from PDSM. Before that, I always think negatively and emotional. But now, I know how to differentiate the advantage and disadvantage when I am thinking independently. I would open my mind to accept other opinions and make the correct decision. (qcda, 1993) Besides that, I will think logically for every decision made in order to achieve the task. (qcda, 1993) This subject teaches me to set up a personal career plan. It is to write down my proposed life agenda. (Answer.com, 2009) Before that, I never think about my life planning in future. But now, I know my objectives and direction after I studied this subject. I will easily achieving my goal and I cant be hurry in taking any shortcut to achieve the goal by doing it randomly. I also have set up short term, middle term and long term goal separately to achieve it during period of time. I also learn the SWOT analysis to evaluate strategic planning method. (Answer.com, 2009) It will help me to overcome my weakness and develop my strength from internal and looking for opportunities and to occupy superiority in threat from external. (Wikipedia, 2009) In addition, PDSM also improve my personal skill such as listening skill and body language. Before that, after I listen lectures from lecturer, I cant understand what he taught. But now, I can understand the lesson. Besides that, I know the difference between hearing and listening. (Fodor, n.d.) After I study PDSM, my body language has improved. Before that, when I presenting something to them, they do not understand what I want to express. But now, I can present something by using verbal or non-verbal language to transmit a message to someone. (Mind Tools, 1995) I can attract my audience by using body language during my presentation. PDSM teach me how to improve my reading skills. So, I can read effectively by using the reading techniques. It is to determine objective, skim and scan through the text, and speed reading to understand the text. (Price and Maier, 2008) Now, I can read an article even more smoothly and faster than before. Besides that, I can understand meaning of phrases or sentences easily. It would help me improve my reading skills effectively for my degree study. I am learning about note making from PDSM. Note making is a technique to record important information effectively and recall it at any time. (Student and Community Services Unit, 1986) Before that, I am very confused when reading an article. But now, I am using note making technique to take down important information and memorize it easily. Besides that, it helps me to do revision more convenient and easily understand the content of an article. On the other hand, I will take notes in the class from lecturer. I can easily summarising and review the lesson base on the notes that I have made. (Jones and Mort, 1994) Other than that, I also learn about mind mapping in this subject. I would know how to make a mind map by using the notes. The note in a mind map is in order and clearly to analyze each part of the topic. It would help me easily to understand and have a direct vision for each part of the main topic. I can imagine the mind map by brainstorming and write down the notes and ideas easily. It helps me to remember each part of the ideas that I list down for examination and to overcome the information overload problem. (Mann, 2003) PDSM also teach me how to manage time. Before that, I always postpones my assignment until last minutes, thus I cant finish it. But after I learned the skill, I can overcome procrastination and manage time well. I am able to hand up my assignment on time. Besides that, I can plan and manage time usage more elastic in setting priorities by assigning and making decision between urgent and important criteria. (Haughey, 2000) In addition, I can set my personal goals via using S.M.A.R.T. principle to achieve lifetime goal in the future. (Haughey, 2000) Besides that, I also study learning method in PDSM. Before that, I do not know where I want to start on learning each subject. After I studied this subject, it helps me to find a ways to improve my study by the types of learning situations. For examples, I can discuss with classmates in tutorial and ask questions on lecturer. I will listen lectures from lecturer idea, recorded the notes and discuss with my classmates. I will know and understand the learning outcomes as a result on each courses of study. (Khathijah, 2004) I will manage my study and improve as well and enhance the quality of learning. (Khathijah, 2004) In conclusion, PDSM helps me in studying skills, personality and self-development. It will help me to become a successful person and as a student in the future. Reference: Mind Tools, 1995, Building Self-Confidence: Develop the Self-Confidence You Deserve!, Mind Tools Industry, Available from http://www.mindtools.com/selfconf.html, Last Accessed 25th July 2009. Perera, K, 2002, What is Self Esteem?, More-Selfesteem.com Company, Available from http://www.more-selfesteem.com/whatisselfesteem.htm, Last Accessed 25th July 2009. qcda, 1993, Developing skills: Thinking skills, Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency Company, Available from http://www.qcda.gov.uk/1841.aspx, Last Accessed 24th July 2009. Answer.com, 2009, What is Your Personal Career Plan?, Answers Corporation Company, Available from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_your_personal_career_plan, Last Accessed 24th July 2009. Answer.com, 2009, SWOT analysis, Answers Corporation Company, Available from http://www.answers.com/topic/swot-analysis, Last Accessed 24th July 2009. Wikipedia, 2009, SWOT analysis, n.p. Available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis, Last Accessed 24th July 2009. Fodor, J, Dr, n.d. What is Active Listening? The Elmhurst College Learning Center, Available from http://www.elmhurst.edu/library/learningcenter/Listening/what_is_active_listening.htm, Last Accessed 24th July 2009. Mind Tools, 1995, Body language: Understanding non-verbal communication, Mind Tools Industry, Available from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/Body_Language.htm, Last Accessed 25th July 2009. Richman, H, 1998, 11 Free Tips Improve Studying Results, Sound Feelings, Available from http://www.soundfeelings.com/free/studying.htm, Last Accessed 14th July 2009. Price, G, Maier, M, eds, 2008, Reading Skills, University of Southampton, Available from http://www.studyskills.soton.ac.uk/studytips/reading_skills.htm, Last Accessed 17th July 2009. Lamb, A, and Johnson, L, 1999, Skimming and Scanning, n.p. Available from http://www.42explore.com/skim.htm, Last Accessed 17th July 2009. Student and Community Services Unit, 1986, Note Making, Victoria University of Wellington, Available from http://www.victoria.ac.nz/st_Services/slss/studyhub/notes/Note-making.pdf, Last Accessed 22nd July 2009. Jones, G, and Mort, P, 1994, Note-Taking Skills, The Learning Centre Company, Available from http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/pdf/notetake.pdf, Last Accessed 19th July 2009. Mann, B, 2003, Overcome Information Overload with Mind Maps, WebProNews Company, Available from http://www.webpronews.com/topnews/2003/08/20/overcome-information-overload-with-mind-maps, Last Accessed 23rd July 2009. Haughey, D, 2000, SMART Goals, ProjectSmart.co.uk Company, Available from http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/smart-goals.html, Last Accessed 23rd July 2009. Khathijah Abdul Hamid, Dr, 2004, A Guideline for the Development of Learning Outcomes for Courses of Study Offered at Private Higher Education Institutions, Linn-Benton Community College Media Service, Available from http://www.mqa.gov.my/fail/gpanduan/LearningOutcomesBI.pdf, Last Accessed 24th July 2009.
Sunday, August 4, 2019
Imperialism :: essays research papers
Imperialism is the total domination of the political, economical, or cultural aspects or a nation. Imperial colonization has been occurring sense the beginning of time. An imperialistic nation would increase its importance and power by winning an empire. Some takeovers were forced by political rivalries. One nation might seize a territory to prevent a competitor from expanding into that region. Some nations would expand to boost their economic value, or personal wealth. Imperialism advances a countries politics, society, and economic value into a powerful money making country. The political aspect of imperialism progresses a country from being week into a strong fighting nation. For example, when the French were taking over parts of Africa, the communication of the two countries increased and they started to share the Suez Canal. Also when the British government set up a system of Colonial rule, it controlled over 280 million Indians. Thus encouraging officials to learn new languages. When the Spanish took over Latin America they constructed a Council of the Indies which issued over 400,00 orders to improve the cities. However without society, politics would have gotten no where. The social aspect of imperialism was very important. First of all, by the colonization of countries scientist were able to find causes and treatments to diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. Also Britain built canals, roads, and railways which opened up India’s interior. The Spanish improved the Aztecs cities by making public waterways, paved and lighted streets, and a new invention the printing press. The society increased but when it enhanced the economics boosted also. The economics of imperialism is a major reason why nations would take over other countries. In Africa they introduced better farming techniques like dykes and irrigation canals, which boosted the money growth. The British improved medical care that included doctor education, thus leading into a boom in the population.
Saturday, August 3, 2019
Canadian GDP :: essays research papers
The output or GDP of Canada has increased from 1995 to 1999. This means that more people became employed or productivity has risen. With the GDP on the rise, Canada is able to buy more because people will have more money from work. This would appreciate the dollar because Canadians need the U.S. dollar to purchase our goods. Demand, on the other hand, has somewhat stayed the same. There were periods when it was up and periods when it was down. When the demand for passenger cars was falling, Canadians were looking elsewhere to buy their cars. This factor would, most likely appreciate the dollar because, one again, the Canadians would need the U.S. dollar to buy our cars. When the demand was up, the opposite situation would happen. The unemployment rate for Canada fell, possible because of increased advertisement. When the unemployment of a country is low, output and productivity are raising. I stated before, as output rises, imports will also rise. This is due to the increase of money in the country. The dollar will appreciate relative to the Canadian dollar. Canada’s inflation has risen 7% in the last five years. As the price of Canada’s goods increase, the U.S. is looking elsewhere to buy its products. The supply of the U.S. dollar would decrease in Canada and the U.S. dollar would appreciate. In order to get an exact reading of the actions taken by Canada, we must look at their inflation compared to the U.S. I looked at http://www.stls.frb.org/fred/data/cpi/cpiaucsl, and I found that the U.S. had an 11% inflation rate. This means that product price of the U.S. has risen faster to that of Canada. This means that Canada was possible taking there business elsewhere, causing the dollar to depreciate. The interest rates of Canada are clearly on the downfall. Less people are putting their money into the investing sector. When the interest decreases, it is likely that Canada is putting their money into the U.S. This would appreciate the dollar because Canada would need the U.S. currency to invest in our country. Canada is running a constant trade surplus. We must also look at the current account balance of Canada. It decreased drastically from 1996 to 1997. This, most likely, means their imports were greater than their exports. You would be able to see this on their goods and service balance. I would assume that they do have a merchandise trade deficit because Canada is getting money from investing income.
Friday, August 2, 2019
hate speech :: essays research papers
Filtered Freedom Hate speech is often misunderstood because it can be classified as either careless or intentionally hurtful. Many people interpret careless statements as acts of aggression, but with good reason. It would be false to say that the freedom of speech has never been manipulated to inflict damage upon others. Questions have been risen of what hate speech is and if it should be allowed to be viewed by public access. Alan M. Dershowitz delivers an enumerative definition of the term by asserting all speech that criticizes another’s race, religion, gender, ethnicity, appearance, class, physical or mental capabilities, or sexual preference. However simply defining hate speech by listing out its various forms only amplifies its definition, but it fails to clarify. Vicki Chiang manages to provide a more analytical understanding of the term by listing the various forms of the act and addressing the effects upon all involved. Dershowitz’s list of hurtful instances of hate speech conv eys a definition of the term as a whole, but does not cover all forms hate speech. Hate speech is any action that conveys a critical perception of an opinion which criticizes a group in a harmful manner. By addressing all forms of hate speech and considering all involved it can be concluded that though such media is often viewed as offensive, it should not be censored by a legislative body that advocates freedom of speech. In a library, one should be allowed access to the records of the past in order to prepare for the future, despite the severity of the content. As a public place designed to encourage mental stimulation, obstruction of knowledge in a library is a sociological setback. Hindering a nation’s source of intellectual growth and the entire potential of the country, will inevitably do more harm than it can good. Though one may argue that the preservation of information regarding such events could inspire new acts of hate, the past will shed light on what to do in such situations. People need to understand why the statements made in the past did not always justify their actions. It is our cultural history that provides us with insight of what is just and what is prejudiced. Cultural values feed off freedom of expression, whether it is through censorship or the proclamation of beliefs and feelings. Such a liberty is the foundation of our country, and should not be obstructed in a place of common ground such as a library.
Thursday, August 1, 2019
Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process
Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process Prepared for Professor Suresh Radhakrishnan SPHR, MBA BUS 346 Business Communication San Fernando Valley Campus, Burbank, CA Prepared by Isaac Lowe 03-13-13 Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ii 2. Overview of Compstat †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1 3. Four Compstat Principles †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1 4. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has established a uniform Crime Reporting †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 5. Computing Year to Date (YTD) Weekl y Averages †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 6.Creating the Crime Summary Report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 7. Analysis of Crime Data and Strategies †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 8. Crime Summary Report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 9. Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 10. References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 List of Illustrations Figure 1 Crime Data Chart †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4 Figure 2 Year to Date Crime Data Chart †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 i Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process Executive Summary Law enforcement has developed strategies to reduce crime by analyzing crime data.Law enforcement has named this crime reduction strategy as the Compstat process. The Compstat concept analyzes the number and location of crimes and arrests as well as an analysis of suspects, victims, days and times to identify crime patterns, clusters, suspects and hot spots. There are four Compstat principles that are in place to ef fectively reduce crime. To reduce crime by analyzing the crime data, a Crime Summary Report and Crime Maps need to be produced so law enforcement can analyze the crime data. When creating the Crime Summary Report, you will need to compute Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Averages.Once you have the YTD weekly average, you can examine your current crime data to see if crime is increasing or decreasing. By comparing the current crime to the previous amount of crime you can see if crime is up or down and determine if the crime reduction strategies in place are working or if adjustments need to be made. The Compstat process and the Crime Summary Report are tools used for crime reduction. ii Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process1 Overview of Compstat Law enforcement has developed strategies to reduce crime by analyzing crime data.Law enforcement has named this crime reduction strategy as the Compstat process. The Compstat process was developed by former New York Police Depart ment (NYPD) Commissioner William J. Bratton in the 1990’s. Compstat, stands for â€Å"Computer comparison statistics,†and is a system for managing police operations. The Compstat concept has been used widely in the law enforcement community in many different forms. The Compstat concept analyzes the number and location of crimes and arrests as well as an analysis of suspects, victims, days and times to identify crime patterns, lusters, suspects and hot spots. Law enforcement will create strategies to address the crime and implement it as quickly as possible. Law enforcement will consistently review, analyze the results and then repeat the process. This Compstat process can lead to the reduction of crime. Four Compstat Principles There are four Compstat principles that are in place to effectively reduce crime. The first principle is â€Å"Timely and Accurate Intelligence†which is knowing what crime is happening in your area. The Second principle is â€Å"Effect ive Tactics†which is having a game plan.The third principle is â€Å"Rapid Deployment†which is reacting quickly to where the crime is happening. The final principle is â€Å"Relentless Follow-up and Assessment†which is analyzing the results and making changes if needed. The first Compstat principle of â€Å"Accurate and Timely Intelligence†is to collect crime data in real time. Analysis the crime data and take action on identified crime trends. The crime data needs to be as accurate as possible. Without accurate and real time crime data, law enforcement will not be as effective in combating crime and implementing crime reduction strategies.Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process2 The second Compstat principle of â€Å"Effective Tactics†is the development and implementation of crime reduction strategies based on the real time accurate intelligence that was gathered. Law enforcement needs to deploy specific resources and proacti ve strategies to target the crime problem. The third Compstat principle of â€Å"Rapid Deployment†is to quickly deploy crime fighting resources and implement strategies to the target area. Law enforcement needs to deploy its resources to where the crime is occurring now.The fourth Compstat principle of â€Å"Relentless Follow-up and Assessment†is to assess the implementation of the strategies had on target area and analyze the results. By analyzing the strategies and reviewing the results, law enforcement can see if the strategies are working. This review process will help law enforcement improve and make real time adjustments to the strategies in place. FBI Established Uniform Crime Reporting To reduce crime by analyzing the crime data, a Crime Summary Report and Crime Maps need to be produced so law enforcement can analyze the crime data.The Crime Summary Report is divided into a summary for each individual crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has estab lished a uniform Crime Reporting Program which are Criminal Homicide, Forcible Rape, Robbery, Assault, Burglary, Larceny-Theft, Motor Vehicle Theft and Arson. These crimes are also known as â€Å"Part One†crimes. Computing Year to Date Weekly Averages When creating the Crime Summary Report, you will need to compute Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Averages. To do this, you will examine the collected crime data and see what the total number was for the specific crime that you are going to examine.Take that YTD total number for that specific crime and divide it by the total week’s crime data of that specific crime. The outcome will be the YTD weekly average. Once you have the YTD weekly average, you can examine your current crime data to Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process3 see if crime is increasing or decreasing. Here is an example of the weekly average formula that you will use when computing the crime data for each specific crime: YTD Crime Total (137 ) / Crime Total for the week (7) = YTD Weekly Average (19. ). This formula will be used throughout the Crime Summary Report to obtain the YTD Weekly Averages for each crime summary. Creating the Crime Summary Report To start creating the Crime Summary Report, first, impute the 2012 and 2013 YTD Part One Averages on the top of the report so you can see the overall crime trend. Second, create a Crime Data Charts from the collected Crime Data. Next, provide an overall summary of all Part One Crime Data. Then give a summary of the Part One Violent Crime summary and Part One Property Crime Summary.Next, provide a brief summary of the each individual crime within Part One Violent and Part One Property Crimes. This brief summary will include an Analysis of the crime data and a Strategy of how to target the current crime problem. Analysis of Crime Data and Strategies The Analysis section of the Crime Summary Report is where you will be analyzing the crime data. By examining the Crime Maps o f where the crime occurred and the Crime Data you will be able to provide a written summary of the crime trend. In Analysis section you will also be using the weekly average formula to help you examine the Crime Data.The Strategies section of the Crime Summary Report is where you will be explaining your strategies to combat the current crime trends. The following is a Crime Summary Report that I have completed for the 9th week of 2013, ending 03/02/13,that can be referred to for an example. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process4 Crime Summary Report 9th week of 2013 ending: 03/02/2013 20132012 Average Year to Date (YTD) Weekly Part 1 Crime Totals:65. 576. 0 [pic] Figure 1: Crime Data Chart [pic] Figure 2: Year to Date Crime Chart Part One Crime SummaryPart-One Crimes (61) were above the week prior and are below the 2013 Year To Date (YTD) Weekly Average and below the 2012 YTD Weekly Average. There were (3) gang related Robberies and there Reducing and Analyzing C rime Through the Compstat Process5 was (2) gang related Aggravated Assaults this week. The central portions of the Division continues to account for the majority of the part one crime. Part One Violent Crimes (27) were above the week prior and are above the 2013 YTD Weekly Average of (21. 1) and above the 2012 YTD Weekly Average of (22. 2). Robberies increased this week and were mainly in central portion of the Division.Aggravated Assaults increased this week and were mostly spread out through the central portion of the Division. There were no Rapes and Homicides this week. Part One Property Crimes (34) were below the week prior and are below the 2013 YTD weekly average of (44. 6) and below the 2012 YTD Weekly Average of (53. 7). This week BTFV’s decreased with no major clusters. GTA increased slightly this week and were mainly spread out through the western portion of the Division. Burglaries decreased this week with no major clusters. Thefts increased this week and there wa s a small cluster in the central portion of the Division.Part One Violent Crime Summary HOMICIDE: 0 Analysis:None. Strategies:None. RAPE: 0 Analysis:None. Strategies:None. ASSAULTS: 11 Analysis: Aggravated Assaults are above the 2013 weekly average of (7. 1). Aggravated Assaults increased this week and were mainly in the central portion of the Division. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process6 Strategies: Request patrol & specialized units to continue drinking in public enforcement in directed areas. Officers will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the Aggravated Assault problem. ROBBERY: 16 Analysis:Robberies are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (13). Robberies increased this week and were mainly in the central portion of the Division. Strategies: Officer will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the Robbery problem. Request Gang Unit to enforce on all gang related crime. Narcotic Unit will conduct undercover operations to specific areas where the Robberies are occurring. Part One Property Crime Summary GRAND THEFT AUTO: 8 Analysis: Grand Theft Auto (GTA) are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (7. 6) and were mainly spread out through the western portion of the Division. Strategies:Officers will be directed to specific areas as needed to suppress the GTA problem. Officers will continue to receive updated GTA stolen vehicle list. The License Plate Recognition Vehicles will continue to be deployed in designated areas. Rampart Special Problems Unit (SPU) and Auto Detectives will also arrange a Bait Car Operation when the bait car is available. BURGLARY THEFT FROM VEHICLE: 4 Analysis: Burglary Theft From Vehicle (BTFV) are below the 2013 Weekly Average of (15. 0). This week BTFV’s decreased with no major clusters. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process7 Strategies:Officers will be directed through the daily mission to suppress the BTFV problem. Senior Lead Officers will continue the â€Å" Lock it, Hide it, Keep it†flyer campaign. Detectives will utilize Social Media to reach and educate as many community members as possible. Auto Detectives will arrange a Bait Car Operation when the bait car is available. BURGLARY: 2 Analysis: Burglaries are below the 2013 Weekly Average of (4. 6) with no major clusters. Strategies: Officers will be directed through the daily mission as needed to suppress the Burglary problem.Senior Lead Officers (SLO) will continue the â€Å"Lock it, Hide it, Keep it†flyer campaign. Detectives will utilize Social Media to reach and educate as many community members as possible. THEFTS: 20 Analysis: Thefts are above the 2013 Weekly Average of (17. 3) and were mainly spread out through the Division with a small cluster in the central portion of the Division. Strategies: Officers will be directed through the Daily Mission as needed. The decoy car will continue to be deployed in the major shopping centers. Officers will continue to drive through major parking lots of the shopping centers.SLO will continue to walk through businesses on a daily bases and continue to meet with the personnel. The Bike Unit will provide high visibility patrol in the parking lots of the shopping centers. -End of Crime Summary Report- Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process8 After reading the Crime Summary Report we can see how through analyzing the Crime Data and Crime Maps we are able to effectively write a written summary of the crime trends. Furthermore, we are able to analyze our strategies to see if they are effective. The Crime Summary Report gives us a comprehensive account of the current crime trends.Conclusion In conclusion, to successfully reduce the incidence of crime, it is done through comparing the numbers of the current crime to the previous amount of crime. Whether crime is up or down, will help determine if the crime reduction strategies are working or if adjustments need to be made so a different approa ch can be implemented. The Compstat process and the Crime Summary Report are tools used for crime reduction by counting, comparing and mapping crime data for law enforcement to analyze. Reducing and Analyzing Crime Through the Compstat Process9 References Los Angeles Police Department’s Compstat Unit. 2010, March 09). The Compstat Process – Managing Crime Reduction on the LAPD. George Gascon. (2006, January 25). Compstat Plus. David Weisburd, Stephen D. Mastrofski, Rosann Greenspan, and James J. Willis. (2004, April). The Growth of Compstat in American Policing. LAPD Website. Compstat process information Retrieved March, 08, 2013, from http://www. lapdonline. org William J. Bratton and Sean W. Malinowski. Police Performance Management in Practice: Taking COMPSTAT to the Next Level Vincent E. Henry. (2002) A comprehensive study of Compstat in police history and reform
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)